Correlation of university students’ norms with motivation and perceived teacher burnout
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Published:
Sep 17, 2021
Keywords:
norm exploration, motivation, achievement goal theory, perceived teacher burnout
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Abstract
Background and aims: Studies show that academic achievement is not only linked to personal competencies, but also may be influenced by social factors. Social norms can be differentiated as descriptive, personal and prescriptive norms, which refer to the frequency of behaviours, the individual’s attitude and the beliefs about views thought to belong to group members. Different norms influence personal behaviour together, which can lead to conformity. As the relationship of academic motivation and norms among university students is less researched in Hungary, the aim of our study was to explore university students’ descriptive, personal and prescriptive norms.
Methods: Online survey method was used. 337 university student participated voluntarily in the study. Demographic questions, a 23-item norm exploration scale, an Achievement Goal Questionnaire and a Perceived Teacher Burnout Scale were used in the study.
Results: Data showed that there are big differences between occurring frequencies when different behaviours are concerned. . Predominantly negative behaviours, which imply cheating and decreased motivation, were perceived to occur rarely. The analysis supported the hypothesis that pluralistic ignorance is present, thus there is a significant difference between personal and prescriptive norms. Exploratory factor analysis revealed three factors: positive, negative and prosocial norms. Moreover, the analysis revealed significant differences between genders in personal attitudes: positive behaviours were favoured by women, while negative behaviours were more approved my men. Mastery approach goals were associated with positive norms, while perceived teacher burnout was linked to negative behaviours.
Conclusions: The study supported the presumption that motivation and perceived teacher burnout are linked to social phenomena. Pluralistic ignorance was identified in case of most behaviours, which can explain how negative norms that decrease performance spread in communities of university students. The results of the study may be important in understanding dropout among university students.
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Jagodics, B., & Szabó, Éva. (2021). Correlation of university students’ norms with motivation and perceived teacher burnout . Iskolakultúra, 31(7-8), 28–46. https://doi.org/10.14232/ISKKULT.2021.07-08.28
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References
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Bjerring, J. C., Hansen, J. U., & Pedersen, N. J. L. L. (2014). On the rationality of pluralistic ignorance. Synthese, 191(11), 2445–2470. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-014-0434-1
Bottiani, J. H., Duran, C. A. K., Pas, E. T., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2019). Teacher stress and burnout in urban middle schools: Associations with job demands, resources, and effective classroom practices. Journal of School Psychology, 77, 36–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2019.10.002
Brown, J. D. (2012). Understanding the Better Than Average Effect: Motives (Still) Matter. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(2), 209–219. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211432763
Czakó A., Németh L., & Felvinczi K. (2019). A felsőfokú képzés befejezésére irányuló szándék előrejelzői. Educatio, 28(4), 718–736. https://doi.org/10.1556/2063.28.2019.4.5
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The „What” and „Why” of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
Duchesne, S., & Larose, S. (2018). Academic competence and achievement goals: Self-pressure and disruptive behaviors as mediators. Learning and Individual Differences, 68, 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2018.09.008
Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social^cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256–273. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.95.2.256
Elliot, A. J., McGregor, H. A., & Gable, S. (1999). Achievement goals, study strategies, and exam performance: A mediational analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(3), 549–563. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.91.3.549
Elliot, A. J., & Murayama, K. (2008). On the measurement of achievement goals: Critique, illustration, and application. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(3), 613–628. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.3.613
Evers, W. J. G., Tomic, W., & Brouwers, A. (2004). Burnout among Teachers: Students’ and Teachers’ Perceptions Compared. School Psychology International, 25(2), 131–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034304043670
Feldman, D. C. (1984). The development and enforcement of groupnorms. Academy of Management Review, 9(1), 47–53.
Fiske, S. T. (2004). Social beings: Core motives in social psychology. Wiley.
Friedman, I. A. (1995). Student Behavior Patterns Contributing to Teacher Burnout. The Journal of Educational Research, 88(5), 281–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1995.9941312
Gajdics, J., Gubics, F., Horvát, B., Vatai, K., Szabó, É., & Jagodics, B. (2020). Középiskolás osztályközösségek normarendszerének longitudinális vizsgálata: Az első két év eredményei. Iskolakultúra, 30(3), 18–34. https://doi.org/10.14232/ISKKULT.2020.3.18
Geiger, N., & Swim, J. K. (2016). Climate of silence: Pluralistic ignorance as a barrier to climate change discussion. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 47, 79–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.05.002
Gibbons, F. X., & McCoy, S. B. (1991). Self-esteem, similarity, and reactions to active versus passive downward comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(3), 414–424. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.3.414
Hakanen, J. J., Bakker, A. B., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2006). Burnout and work engagement among teachers. Journal of School Psychology, 43(6), 495–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2005.11.001
Halbesleben, J. R. B., Wheeler, A. R., & Buckley, M. R. (2005). Everybody Else is Doing it, So Why Can?t We? Pluralistic Ignorance and Business Ethics Education. Journal of Business Ethics, 56(4), 385–398. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-004-3897-z
Halbesleben, J. R. B., Wheeler, A. R., & Buckley, M. R. (2007). Understanding pluralistic ignorance in organizations: Application and theory. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(1), 65–83. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710721947
Horn, J. L. (1965). A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis. Psychometrika, 32, 179–185.
Jagodics, B., Gajdics, J., Gubics, F., Horvát, B., Vatai, K., & Szabó, É. (2020). Az Észlelt Tanári Kiégés Kérdőív szerkezetének vizsgálata középiskolás diákok körében. Iskolakultúra, 30(7), 46–60. https://doi.org/10.14232/ISKKULT.2020.7.46
Jagodics, B., & Szabó, É. (2019). Tipikus viselkedésformák és megítélésük feltárása középiskolás osztályközösségekben a normavizsgálat módszerével. Iskolakultúra, 29(8), 69–82.
Katz, D., Allport, F. H., & Jennes, M. B. (1931). Students’ attitudes; A report of the Syracuse University reaction study. Craftsman.
Kokkinos, C. M., Antoniadou, N., & Markos, A. (2014). Cyber-bullying: An investigation of the psychological profile of university student participants. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 35(3), 204–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2014.04.001
Kóródi, K., Fürdök, F., & Szabó, É. (2020). Iskolában előforduló proszociális és agresszív viselkedések normavizsgálata. Iskolakultúra, 30(3), 50–61. https://doi.org/10.14232/ISKKULT.2020.3.50
Lackritz, J. R. (2004). Exploring burnout among university faculty: Incidence, performance, and demographic issues. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20(7), 713–729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2004.07.002
Lambert, T. A., Kahn, A. S., & Apple, K. J. (2003). Pluralistic ignorance and Hooking up. The Journal of Sex Research, 40(2), 129–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490309552174
Lukács, F., & Sebő, T. (2015). Az egyetemi lemorzsolódás kérdőíves vizsgálata. Iskolakultúra, 25(10), 78–86. https://doi.org/10.17543/ISKKULT.2015.10.78
Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. (1999). Teacher burnout: A research agenda. In Understanding and Preventing Teacher Burnout (o. 295–303). Cambridge University Press.
Moscovici, S., Lage, E., & Naffrechoux, M. (1969). Influence of a Consistent Minority on the Responses of a Majority in a Color Perception Task. Sociometry, 32(4), 365. https://doi.org/10.2307/2786541
Moscovici, Serge. (1977). Social influence and social change. Academic Press.
O’Gorman, H. J. (1986). The discovery of pluralistic ignorance: An ironic lesson. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 22(4), 333–347. https://doi.org/10.1002/1520-6696(198610)22:4<333::AID-JHBS2300220405>3.0.CO;2-X
Orosz, G., & Karsai, N. F. (2012). Az egyetemi oktatók lelkesedésének és a hallgatók csalásának összefüggései. Iskolakultúra, 12(9), 3–11.
Pajor, G. (2013). Serdülők teljesítménymotivációja a célorientációs elmélet tükrében. PhD disszertáció. http://pszichologia.phd.elte.hu/vedesek/PAJOR_GABRIELLA_disszertacio.pdf
Pajor Gabriella. (2015). „Gyorsabban, magasabbra, bátrabban” - de hogyan? Teljesítménymotiváció iskolai környezetben. ELTE Eötvös K.
Prentice, D. A., & Miller, D. T. (1996). Pluralistic Ignorance and the Perpetuation of Social Norms by Unwitting Actors. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Köt. 28, o. 161–209). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60238-5
Pusztai G., Kovács K., & Hegedűs R. (2019). Lemorzsolódók tegnap, ma és holnap. Educatio, 28(4), 737–754. https://doi.org/10.1556/2063.28.2019.4.6
Putwain, D. W., Symes, W., Nicholson, L. J., & Becker, S. (2018). Achievement goals, behavioural engagement, and mathematics achievement: A mediational analysis. Learning and Individual Differences, 68, 12–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2018.09.006
Richardson, M., Abraham, C., & Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138(2), 353–387. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026838
Samuels, P. (2016). Advice on Exploratory Factor Analysis. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.5013.9766
Schroeder, C. M., & Prentice, D. A. (1998). Exposing Pluralistic Ignorance to Reduce Alcohol Use Among College Students1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28(23), 2150–2180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1998.tb01365.x
Shelton, J. N., & Richeson, J. A. (2005). Intergroup Contact and Pluralistic Ignorance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(1), 91–107. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.1.91
Shen, B., McCaughtry, N., Martin, J., Garn, A., Kulik, N., & Fahlman, M. (2015). The relationship between teacher burnout and student motivation. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(4), 519–532. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12089
Siegler, A. (2020). Iskolai bántalmazás a diákok perspektívájából. Iskolakultúra, 30(7), 61–75. https://doi.org/10.14232/ISKKULT.2020.7.61
Sinkkonen, H.-M., Puhakka, H., & Meriläinen, M. (2014). Bullying at a university: Students’ experiences of bullying. Studies in Higher Education, 39(1), 153–165. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2011.649726
Smith, E. R., Mackie, D. M., Claypool, H. M., Csertő, I., Danczi, C., Ehman, B., & Pántya, J. (2016). Szociálpszichológia. ELTE Eötvös Kiadó.
Svenson, O. (1981). Are we all less risky and more skillful than our fellow drivers? Acta Psychologica, 47(2), 143–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-6918(81)90005-6
Szabó, É., & Labancz, Á. (2015). „Én nem helyeslem, de a többiek biztosan” -Normák és vélt-normák működése és mérése az iskolai osztályokban. In Szociálpszichológiai tanulmányok a Szociál- és Munkapszichológiai Tanszék fennállásának 25. Évfordulójára (o. 77–97). Debreceni Egyetem.
Szöllősi, G. (2019). Az egyetemi hallgatók megtartását segítő eszközök a nemzetközi gyakorlatban: Elméletek és módszerek. Szociális Szemle, 12(1–2), 4–26. https://doi.org/10.15170/SocRev.2019.12.01-02.01
Tatar, M., & Yahav, V. (1999). Secondary school pupils’ perceptions of burnout among teachers. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 69(4), 457–468. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709999157824
Varga, J. (2010). Mennyit ér a diploma a kétezres években Magyarországon? Educatio, 3, 370–3832.
Asch, S. E. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 70(9), 1–70.
Bjerring, J. C., Hansen, J. U., & Pedersen, N. J. L. L. (2014). On the rationality of pluralistic ignorance. Synthese, 191(11), 2445–2470. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-014-0434-1
Bottiani, J. H., Duran, C. A. K., Pas, E. T., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2019). Teacher stress and burnout in urban middle schools: Associations with job demands, resources, and effective classroom practices. Journal of School Psychology, 77, 36–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2019.10.002
Brown, J. D. (2012). Understanding the Better Than Average Effect: Motives (Still) Matter. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(2), 209–219. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211432763
Czakó A., Németh L., & Felvinczi K. (2019). A felsőfokú képzés befejezésére irányuló szándék előrejelzői. Educatio, 28(4), 718–736. https://doi.org/10.1556/2063.28.2019.4.5
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The „What” and „Why” of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
Duchesne, S., & Larose, S. (2018). Academic competence and achievement goals: Self-pressure and disruptive behaviors as mediators. Learning and Individual Differences, 68, 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2018.09.008
Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social^cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256–273. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.95.2.256
Elliot, A. J., McGregor, H. A., & Gable, S. (1999). Achievement goals, study strategies, and exam performance: A mediational analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(3), 549–563. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.91.3.549
Elliot, A. J., & Murayama, K. (2008). On the measurement of achievement goals: Critique, illustration, and application. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(3), 613–628. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.3.613
Evers, W. J. G., Tomic, W., & Brouwers, A. (2004). Burnout among Teachers: Students’ and Teachers’ Perceptions Compared. School Psychology International, 25(2), 131–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034304043670
Feldman, D. C. (1984). The development and enforcement of groupnorms. Academy of Management Review, 9(1), 47–53.
Fiske, S. T. (2004). Social beings: Core motives in social psychology. Wiley.
Friedman, I. A. (1995). Student Behavior Patterns Contributing to Teacher Burnout. The Journal of Educational Research, 88(5), 281–289. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1995.9941312
Gajdics, J., Gubics, F., Horvát, B., Vatai, K., Szabó, É., & Jagodics, B. (2020). Középiskolás osztályközösségek normarendszerének longitudinális vizsgálata: Az első két év eredményei. Iskolakultúra, 30(3), 18–34. https://doi.org/10.14232/ISKKULT.2020.3.18
Geiger, N., & Swim, J. K. (2016). Climate of silence: Pluralistic ignorance as a barrier to climate change discussion. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 47, 79–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.05.002
Gibbons, F. X., & McCoy, S. B. (1991). Self-esteem, similarity, and reactions to active versus passive downward comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(3), 414–424. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.3.414
Hakanen, J. J., Bakker, A. B., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2006). Burnout and work engagement among teachers. Journal of School Psychology, 43(6), 495–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2005.11.001
Halbesleben, J. R. B., Wheeler, A. R., & Buckley, M. R. (2005). Everybody Else is Doing it, So Why Can?t We? Pluralistic Ignorance and Business Ethics Education. Journal of Business Ethics, 56(4), 385–398. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-004-3897-z
Halbesleben, J. R. B., Wheeler, A. R., & Buckley, M. R. (2007). Understanding pluralistic ignorance in organizations: Application and theory. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(1), 65–83. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710721947
Horn, J. L. (1965). A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis. Psychometrika, 32, 179–185.
Jagodics, B., Gajdics, J., Gubics, F., Horvát, B., Vatai, K., & Szabó, É. (2020). Az Észlelt Tanári Kiégés Kérdőív szerkezetének vizsgálata középiskolás diákok körében. Iskolakultúra, 30(7), 46–60. https://doi.org/10.14232/ISKKULT.2020.7.46
Jagodics, B., & Szabó, É. (2019). Tipikus viselkedésformák és megítélésük feltárása középiskolás osztályközösségekben a normavizsgálat módszerével. Iskolakultúra, 29(8), 69–82.
Katz, D., Allport, F. H., & Jennes, M. B. (1931). Students’ attitudes; A report of the Syracuse University reaction study. Craftsman.
Kokkinos, C. M., Antoniadou, N., & Markos, A. (2014). Cyber-bullying: An investigation of the psychological profile of university student participants. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 35(3), 204–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2014.04.001
Kóródi, K., Fürdök, F., & Szabó, É. (2020). Iskolában előforduló proszociális és agresszív viselkedések normavizsgálata. Iskolakultúra, 30(3), 50–61. https://doi.org/10.14232/ISKKULT.2020.3.50
Lackritz, J. R. (2004). Exploring burnout among university faculty: Incidence, performance, and demographic issues. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20(7), 713–729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2004.07.002
Lambert, T. A., Kahn, A. S., & Apple, K. J. (2003). Pluralistic ignorance and Hooking up. The Journal of Sex Research, 40(2), 129–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490309552174
Lukács, F., & Sebő, T. (2015). Az egyetemi lemorzsolódás kérdőíves vizsgálata. Iskolakultúra, 25(10), 78–86. https://doi.org/10.17543/ISKKULT.2015.10.78
Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. (1999). Teacher burnout: A research agenda. In Understanding and Preventing Teacher Burnout (o. 295–303). Cambridge University Press.
Moscovici, S., Lage, E., & Naffrechoux, M. (1969). Influence of a Consistent Minority on the Responses of a Majority in a Color Perception Task. Sociometry, 32(4), 365. https://doi.org/10.2307/2786541
Moscovici, Serge. (1977). Social influence and social change. Academic Press.
O’Gorman, H. J. (1986). The discovery of pluralistic ignorance: An ironic lesson. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 22(4), 333–347. https://doi.org/10.1002/1520-6696(198610)22:4<333::AID-JHBS2300220405>3.0.CO;2-X
Orosz, G., & Karsai, N. F. (2012). Az egyetemi oktatók lelkesedésének és a hallgatók csalásának összefüggései. Iskolakultúra, 12(9), 3–11.
Pajor, G. (2013). Serdülők teljesítménymotivációja a célorientációs elmélet tükrében. PhD disszertáció. http://pszichologia.phd.elte.hu/vedesek/PAJOR_GABRIELLA_disszertacio.pdf
Pajor Gabriella. (2015). „Gyorsabban, magasabbra, bátrabban” - de hogyan? Teljesítménymotiváció iskolai környezetben. ELTE Eötvös K.
Prentice, D. A., & Miller, D. T. (1996). Pluralistic Ignorance and the Perpetuation of Social Norms by Unwitting Actors. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Köt. 28, o. 161–209). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60238-5
Pusztai G., Kovács K., & Hegedűs R. (2019). Lemorzsolódók tegnap, ma és holnap. Educatio, 28(4), 737–754. https://doi.org/10.1556/2063.28.2019.4.6
Putwain, D. W., Symes, W., Nicholson, L. J., & Becker, S. (2018). Achievement goals, behavioural engagement, and mathematics achievement: A mediational analysis. Learning and Individual Differences, 68, 12–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2018.09.006
Richardson, M., Abraham, C., & Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students’ academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138(2), 353–387. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026838
Samuels, P. (2016). Advice on Exploratory Factor Analysis. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.5013.9766
Schroeder, C. M., & Prentice, D. A. (1998). Exposing Pluralistic Ignorance to Reduce Alcohol Use Among College Students1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28(23), 2150–2180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1998.tb01365.x
Shelton, J. N., & Richeson, J. A. (2005). Intergroup Contact and Pluralistic Ignorance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(1), 91–107. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.1.91
Shen, B., McCaughtry, N., Martin, J., Garn, A., Kulik, N., & Fahlman, M. (2015). The relationship between teacher burnout and student motivation. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(4), 519–532. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12089
Siegler, A. (2020). Iskolai bántalmazás a diákok perspektívájából. Iskolakultúra, 30(7), 61–75. https://doi.org/10.14232/ISKKULT.2020.7.61
Sinkkonen, H.-M., Puhakka, H., & Meriläinen, M. (2014). Bullying at a university: Students’ experiences of bullying. Studies in Higher Education, 39(1), 153–165. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2011.649726
Smith, E. R., Mackie, D. M., Claypool, H. M., Csertő, I., Danczi, C., Ehman, B., & Pántya, J. (2016). Szociálpszichológia. ELTE Eötvös Kiadó.
Svenson, O. (1981). Are we all less risky and more skillful than our fellow drivers? Acta Psychologica, 47(2), 143–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-6918(81)90005-6
Szabó, É., & Labancz, Á. (2015). „Én nem helyeslem, de a többiek biztosan” -Normák és vélt-normák működése és mérése az iskolai osztályokban. In Szociálpszichológiai tanulmányok a Szociál- és Munkapszichológiai Tanszék fennállásának 25. Évfordulójára (o. 77–97). Debreceni Egyetem.
Szöllősi, G. (2019). Az egyetemi hallgatók megtartását segítő eszközök a nemzetközi gyakorlatban: Elméletek és módszerek. Szociális Szemle, 12(1–2), 4–26. https://doi.org/10.15170/SocRev.2019.12.01-02.01
Tatar, M., & Yahav, V. (1999). Secondary school pupils’ perceptions of burnout among teachers. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 69(4), 457–468. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709999157824
Varga, J. (2010). Mennyit ér a diploma a kétezres években Magyarországon? Educatio, 3, 370–3832.